CHAPTER 7: ORAL PRESENTATION

CHAPTER 7: ORAL PRESENTATION

7.1. Oral presentations: time, purpose, structure and manner 7.2. Presentation aids     7.2.1. Reading, memorizing, or using notes    7.2.2. Making and using overhead transparencies    7.2.3. Checklist for visual aids 7.3. The chairperson and the audience     7.3.1. Chairing and the audience    7.3.2. Dilemmas for the chairperson 7.4. Some examples of language used for oral presentations 7.5 Sample seminar performance assessment

    This chapter is intended to enhance your skills and confidence in delivering presentations, and to encourage you to work in partnership with others.

7.1. ORAL PRESENTATIONS: TIME, PURPOSE, STRUCTURE AND MANNER 

7.1.1. Managing the time

• Many speakers think more about the amount of information they want to convey, rather than the amount of time they have in which to present the information. In a presentation of ten minutes, given that you need to introduce and conclude, you will be able to cover between two to four points briefly. • Keeping to the time limit is a matter of courtesy. It is unacceptable to go over time. Often examiners will either deduct marks, or the following speaker may be penalised by having his/her time cut in order to complete the session within a specific time. • Help manage the time by limiting the scope of your presentation. Although there are several theories, this presentation will only focus on two… This presentation focuses only on the private sector as opposed to the public sector… Although the effects have been apparent since 1970, this presentation focuses on the period 1976-1986… Implementation, rather than policy formulation, will be considered…

7.1.2. The purpose

• Who? How many people? What kind of room? Will the audience be close to/distant from you and relatively informal/formal? Will the audience be familiar will the topic? How much can you assume members of the audience know, and how much do you think they want to hear? • Why? Are you being assessed, and if so what are the assessment criteria and expectations? What guidelines have been issued? Talk with your lecturer about what he/she expects you to do (coursework purpose). • What? What do you wish to convey? What do you want the audience to know? Why do you want them to know it? Why will information you present be useful to the audience? How? (presentation objectives). • How? How are you going to interest your audience and persuade listeners that the content of your presentation is interesting, informative and useful? (presentation technique).

    At the beginning of your presentation make clear to the audience what the presentation will be about and the main point it will cover (outline).

7.1.3. Structure

• Introduce the topic clearly. • Define or explain terms if necessary. • Have an introduction and a conclusion. • Begin with a brief outline of what will be covered in the presentation. • Have clear and logical links between sections. • Let the audience know what stage you are at by using signposts: first, second, another important factor, in conclusion…

7.1.4. Manner of speaking

• Volume and speed. Volume and speed can be a problem for both international and native speakers. There can be difficulties with the voice of the speaker being too loud or too soft. There is also a balance between going so slowly that the presentation loses all interest for the audience, and so fast that speech becomes incomprehensible. • Fluency. It is good to strive for fluency. However, fluency is often attained at the risk of making mistakes in public, especially if English is not the first language. • Eye contact. It is important to have eye contact with the audience, without staring. It is important also not to lock onto one or two people (very often the lecturer), but to include as many of the audience as possible. • Body language. Body language can influence an audience: nervous students for example, may smile/laugh inappropriately, or use gestures/body movement inappropriate to the setting. • Pronunciation. It is important to learn to pronounce the specialised words of the discipline. Very often pronunciation is based on reading a word, not listening to it. • Unrestricted sound flow. It is important to face the audience and not obstruct the line of sight between the speaker's mouth and the listener's ear. Often nervous students will talk to their shoes, or the ceiling, or hide their mouths behind their hands or papers. What habits do you have when you are nervous?

7.2. PRESENTATION AIDS 

7.2.1. Reading, memorising, or using notes

• Reading a paper is best avoided. It can be a problem if English is a second language because it can distort articulation and pronunciation. Although it offers some security to the presenter, it can lead to problem for the audience in understanding what is being said. It involves looking down, perhaps losing ones place in the notes, and generally avoiding interaction with the audience. • Memorising is risky. It can lead to a false sense of security and may become monotonous to the listener. Such presenters do not cope well with unexpected interruptions/questions, and they tend not to convey enthusiasm for what they are doing. Memorising, therefore, it best avoided. • Notes are the best alternative. The quality of the notes, and the ease with which they can be referred to determines the quality of the presentation. Should only be used as a basis for speaking, not to read word-for-word; should be typed in larger font/type size with double-line spacing.

7.2.2. Making and using overhead transparencies; using powerpoint

• Do not photocopy straight from a book onto overhead transparencies (OHTs): the typing is often to small and too close together and may be difficult for the audience to read. Highlight the information you wish to convey by retyping, double-line spacing and enlarging it. • The quality is important : black smudges and poor reproductions are to be avoided. • Include the title of your presentation and the title of the OHT at the top so that the audience can immediately note the OHT's relevance. At the bottom of each OHT include the source of your information if appropriate so that the audience may note the details. • If handwriting information, ensure that it fits the size of the projector: you may need to vary the size of your handwriting or reduce the amount of information. Ensure that your handwriting is legible to those people in the far corners of the room. This may mean experimenting with various drafts. • When you are using diagrams, tables or graphs, you may need to enlarge them so the audience can clearly read the headings and the information. • The language you use when referring to an OHT could include    This OHT/diagram/table shows (outline the content)    I'd like to draw your attention to…(highlight)    Please note…(highlight)    Compare x and y…(highlight)    This means… (explain significance) • An OHT does not do the presentation for you: it is used to highlight particular aspects of your presentation. Highlight one main issue information relation to the topic on each OHT. It should not contain more than five points/6-7 lines of writing in relation to the issue. The key questions to ask yourself are: What is significant about the information? What do I want the audience to know/remember? • Even though you are using an OHT, your audience does not disappear'. Address the audience and not your OHT. Maintain eye contact. • The language should be clear and precise, and spelling must be correct.

7.2.3. Checklist for visual aids

• Keep it simple. • Have only one key point per visual. • Print must be large, dark and easily read from the back of the room. • Do not use whole sentences: use heading only. • The world's worst visual aid is an OHT of a typed page of text. • Ask yourself: can the audience quickly and easily grasp what they see? • Use pictures, maps, symbols and graphs. • Translate complex tables/statistics into bar graphs or other graphics.    Bar graphs (or histograms) are good for showing comparisons.    Pie charts are good for showing the relationship of parts to a whole.    Graphs are good for showing changes and trends over time.    Diagrams are good for showing complex structures, processes or ideas.    Maps are interesting, and help the audience locate and visualise the setting. • Do not present a page full of numbers. • No more than three curves on a graph. • If you use colour, not more than three. • Use overlays for complex points.

7.3. THE CHAIRPERSON AND THE AUDIENCE 

7.3.1. Chairing and the audience

► Chairperson/convenor

    The role of a chairperson is, essentially, to support the speaker, and manage what occurs during an oral presentation.

    Supporting the speaker involves:

• Knowing what is going to take place in the presentation. • Knowing the professional background of the speaker. • Preventing the speaker from becoming the focus of what could be 'heated' discussion.

    Managing what takes place during the presentation includes:

• Preparing the room, furniture and equipment. • Keeping track of the time. • Maintaining a balance between questioners. • Introducing and closing the presentation.

    Although questions should be asked through the chairperson, the onus is on him/ her to remain impartial to the discussion which takes place. The chairperson should:

• check the structure of the presentation so that he/she knows what is going to happen. • check for any last minute changes which may have been made. • organise with the speaker a means of indicating what time constraints she/he is under. • reiterate the timing/sequence of events in the presentation before the start of the presentation (I wish to remind the speakers that they have seven minutes in which to complete their presentation… Would the audience refrain from asking questions until…).

Question time

    Question should be asked though the chairperson. To prevent an exclusive discussion taking place between the speaker and the questioner it is important to give as many people as possible an opportunity to ask question and manage a balance between questioners. Relatively equal numbers of men/women, lecturers/students, senior/junior academics and so on, should have the opportunity to ask questions. Questions should be brief and relevant.

Closing the presentation

    During the presentation it is expected that the chairperson will take brief notes of the key points, and try to identify why the presentation has been particularly useful for the audience. The chairperson should also attempt to link this particular presentation which any that have gone before it if it is part of a series. Each speaker and the audience should then have thanks addressed to them, and eye contact is important when doing so.

The audience

    Crucial to a speaker's oral presentation is the way he/she feels the audience is responding, and all too often the audience can unintentionally unnerve a speaker, leading to an almost antagonistic, adversarial relationship. The audience should encourage the speaker by making the presenter feel comfortable and at ease, and there are a number of conventions the audience should observe.

• If you are late, offer your apologies to the speaker and the chairperson at the conclusion of the presentation. If you do arrive after the start of the presentation, prepare yourself before you enter the room (take out paper/pens) so that you can settle immediately, and the speaker is not distracted. If the chairperson expects people to the room late, he/she should ensure there are spare seats close to the door. • Look at the speaker. It can be very distracting to the speaker if member of the audience are writing/ reading/ passing notes/ whispering or in other ways, very obviously not listening. • Do not speak while someone at the front of the room, or a questioner, is speaking. This is considered extremely impolite. Neither should you laugh, either at a speaker, or while a speaker is presenting. Laughing at a private joke, for example, can appear to the speaker to be laughing at him/her and this can, albeit unintentionally, destroy the confidence of the speaker.

7.3.2. Oral presentations: dilemmas for the chairperson

What would you do as chairperson if • the speaker refuses to finish speaking (a professor? a fellow student?). • a heated discussion develops between the speaker and the questioner. • when question time begins, no one asks a question and there is, potentially, an awkward silence. • after several repetitions, both you and the presenter still cannot understand the question being asked. • a questioner speaks so softly that she/he cannot be heard. • you are ready to start the session, but half the audience has not arrived ( a senior lecturer has not arrived). • a lecturer asks a question and it turns out to be four or five questions. • only men raise their hands to ask question. • you are expected to comment on how interesting the presentation was, but in fact it was extremely boring. • a person asking a question is interrupted by another.

7.4. SOME EXAMPLES OF LANGUAGE USED FOR ORAL PRESENTATIONS 

A. INTRODUCTION

TITLE/SUBJECT

Good morning/afternoon
I'd like to talk (to you) today about...
I'm going to present the recent...
                  explain the position on...
                  brief you on...
                  inform you about...
                  describe...
The subject     of     my talk
      focus                presentation
     topic                 speech

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this talk is to:
→ update you on...
→ put you on...
→ give you the background to...
→ inform you about...
→ discuss...
→ describe...

LENGTH

I shall only take (...) minutes of your time.
I plan to be brief.
As I only have a limited time...

OUTLINE/MAIN PARTS

I've divided my presentation into four main parts/sections. They are...
The subject can be looked at under the following headings: ...

QUESTIONS

I'd glad to answer any questions at the end of my talk.
If you have any questions, please feel free to interrupt.
Please interrupt me if there's something which needs clarifying. Otherwise, there'll be time for a brief discussion/question time at the end.

B. BODY

SEQUENCING/ORDERING

Firsly... sencondly... thirdly...
Then... next...  finally/lastly...
Let's start with...
Let's move/ go on to...
Now we come to...
That brings us to...

GIVING REASONS/CAUSES

Therefore
so
as a result
that's why

CONTRASTING

but
however

COMPARING

Similarly
In the same way

GENERALIZING

usually
generally
as a rule

CONTRACDICTING

in fact
actually

HIGHLIGHTING

in particular
especially

GIVING EXAMPLES

for example
for instance
such as

C. CONCLUSION

SIGNALLING THE END

That brings me to the end of my presentation.
That completes my presentation.
Before I stop/ finish, let me just to say...
That covers all I wanted to say today.

SUMMARIZING

Let me just run over the key points again.
I'll briefly summarize the main issues.
To sum up...
Briefly...
Before I end, let me quickly review the main points of ... (these are the advantages, disadvantages, effects, causes, types)
Briefly, then I'd like to summarize the major points I've presented.

QUESTIONS

Any questions?
I'd glad to try and answer any questions.
We only have a short time left, but if you have any questions, I'd be
glad to answer any that you might have.

CONCLUDING

In conclusion, ...
In closing, ...
To conclude, ...
To sum up, ...
I'd like to leave you with the following thought/idea.

CLOSING

Thank you for your attention.
Thank you for listening.
I hope you will have gained ans insight into...

7.5. ORAL PRESENTATIONS : SAMPLE SEMINAR PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT 

Title of seminar:
Speakers:                                                                 Chairperson:
___________________________________________________________
Comments                                                                Yes/No
A. Content

1) Was the content at the right level for the audience?
2) Was the content interesting?
3) Was the presentation the right length?

B. Structure

1) Was the structure made clear at the start?
2) Was the seminar divided into small, manageable section?
3) Were the sections in logical order?

C. Presentation

1) Did the speaker(s) speak clearly and audibly?
2) Did the speaker(s) look at the audience?
3) Did the speaker(s) avoid reading from a written script?
4) Did the speaker(s) try to get the audience involved?
5) Were the visual aids effective?

D. Discussion session
1) Did the speaker(s) deal well with question?

E. Role of chairperson
1) Did the chairperson introduce speakers and their topics well?
2) Did she/he control questions and comments?

REFERENCES 

1. Bartlett, Annie; Holzknecht, Susanne and Cumming Thom, Alison. Preparing Students For Graduate Study. Australia National University, National Centre for Development Studies, 1999.
2. Chaffee, John. The Thinker Guide to College Success. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1999.
3. Cottrell, Stella. The Study Skills Handbook. Macmillan Press Ltd, 1999.
4. Hay, Iain. Making The Grade: A Guide top Successful Communication and Study. Oxford University Press, 1997.
5. Hellyer, Regina. Study Skills for Learning Power. Houghton Mifflin company, 1997.
6. Kanar, Carol C. The Confident Student. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1998.
7. Macqueen, Chris. Getting Ahead in Tertiary Study. UNSEX Press, 1988.
8. Marshall, Lorraine A. A Guide to Learning Independently. Longman, 1989.
9. Orr, Fred. Study Skills for Successful Students. Allen and Unwin, 1992.
10. Race, Philip. How to Get a Good Degree. Open University Press, 1999.
11. Shepherd, James F. College Study Skills. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1998.
12. Wallace, Andrew. Beginning University. Allen and Unwin, 1999.
13. Wong, Linda. Essential Study Skills. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1998.
14. Wood, Gail. How to Study. Learning Express New York, 1997.