CHAPTER 6:
MARKING YOUR BOOKS AND MAKING NOTES FOR BOOKS |
A. MARKING YOUR BOOKS6.1. Reasons for marking books
6.2. Number and vertical lines
6.3. Helps for finding details
B. MAKING NOTES FOR BOOKS
6.4. Notes on cards
6.5. Major and minor details
6.6. Paragraph Summaries
6.4. Definitions of terminology
6.8. Classification charts
6.9. Time lines
6.10. Maps
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A. MARKING YOUR BOOKS
It is easier to store information in memory when it is well organized. Most successful college students mark information they want to learn in their textbooks and then use their marks as a guide for summarizing the information into organized study notes. This chapter explains how to mark books.
6.1. REASONS FOR MARKING BOOKS
If you were told in high school that you must not write in book, you may wonder why marking textbooks is an essential skill for efficient college study. The main reason is that when you make a book in the way explained in this chapter, you make a permanent record of the information you want to learn. When you do not mark a book as you read it, you must reread it to find the information you need to learn.
Figure 6.1 shows a marked passage and Figure 6.2 illustrates how the markings were used as a guide in making notes.
Figure 6.1. A Highlighted Textbook Passage
More Ways to Improve Learning The foundations for learning are good organization, reciting, and reviewing. However, learning is further enhanced by scheduling plenty of study time, over learning, dealing with the effects of interference, and carefully selecting what to learn. Begin by scheduling more time for studying than you believe is necessary. One of the best establishes facts about learning is that the more time students spend studying the more they learn. Second, overlearn! Many studies have shown that learning is greatly improved when study is continued well beyond the point where material is simply learned well enough to recall it once correctly. Master material rather than barely learn it. Overlearning is your best way to ensure you won't freeze up during a test due to nervousness or anxiety. In addition, keep in mind that the material you learn for one course can interfere with what you must learn for other courses. Protect against this interference by setting aside uninterrupted periods for studying each of your courses. For instance, if you are going to study for three hours on Sunday afternoon, study one subject for the entire three hours rather than study three different subjects for one hour each. In addition, when you prepare for a test, study right before sleep and review the material right before the test. Finally, be selective in what you learn. Mark your textbooks sparingly. (You know you aren't being selective when you mark most everything in a book). If you use the Cornell note-taking format, write summaries at the bottom of each page of your class notes. By being selective, you will remember more than you would if you tried to learn everything.
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Figure 6.2: Notes for the Passage in Figure 6.1
How to Mark Books • Read a section before you mark it. If you mark as you read, you may mark information that you later decide is not especially important. • Do not mark too much. If almost everything on a page is marked, it is the same as if nothing were marked. As a general rule, don’t underline more than 20 percent of the information on a page. For instance, if there are 40 lines of print on the pages of a book, don't underline more than about 8 lines on a page. Avoid excessive underlining by numbering details and by using vertical lines to mark information that you might otherwise underline. • Mark information that will help you make notes. The purpose of marking a book is to make a permanent record that will help you later make notes for learning information. • Make major details stand out. You use major details to make well-organized notes, and it is almost always important to learn them. • Mark Definitions of terminology. On many college tests, up to 70 percent of questions directly or indirectly test students' knowledge of terminology. • Mark examples. Learn the examples included in your book so you will recognize them if they are used in test questions.
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6.2. NUMBERS AND VERTICAL LINES
When you use the guidelines that are summarized in "How to Mark Books" you may find that it sometimes seems impossible to follow the second guideline: "Do not mark too much". However, there are at least three ways to avoid excessive underlining. First, it is sometimes better to underline only key words that identify major details than to underline information about major details. For instance, if a page in a human anatomy textbook describes all the bones in the hand and arm, underline the names of the bones but not the information about them. Later, use the underlining as a guide for making notes, such as those in Figure 6.2. You may also use numbers and vertical lines to reduce the underlining in your books.
It is often more appropriate to number details than to underline them. For example:
Legalization of Marijuana Should marijuana be legalized so that it could be commercially manufactured and sold like alcohol and tobacco? Because of the extent of marijuana use, the issue has become a serious one for politicians. Although arrest for possession seldom leads to jail, proponents of legalization argue that (1) inconsistency of enforcement leads to disrespect for the law. In addition, (2) the problems of enforcement become enormous, diverting police efforts from other kinds of crime, and (3) the government is unable to collect taxes on the drug as it can on alcohol and tobacco. Furthermore, (4) buyers are not protected from overpriced low quality marijuana.
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In the four details in this passage underlined, the entire last half of the paragraph would be underlined.
Vertical lines are useful for a variety of purposes, including marking definitions and examples.
Def is used above as an abbreviation for definition, and Ex is an abbreviation forExamples.
In the following example, Imp't is used as an abbreviation for Important to draw attention to information that is especially important.
Some students write asterisks (*) next to information that is especially important and question marks (?) next to material that is unclear to them. Write any symbols or words in your books that help you to learn the information in them.
Many scholars write comments in the margins of books as they study them. For example, if, while reading a statement written by Carl Jung, students of psychology recall that Sigmund Freud expressed a similar point of view, they may write "Freud agrees" in the margin. You, too, may interact with the authors of your books by writing whatever comments you want in the margins of the books you own.
6.3. HELPS FOR FINDING DETAILS
Authors and editors provided five helps for locating details to mark in textbooks: 1) subheadings, (2) words in italics or boldface, (3) numbers, (4) bullets, and (5) statements in introductions.
► Subheadings: Subheadings may name details. Use the subheadings to locate the major details in the following passage.
Importance of Romantic Love
Romantic love is a noble ideal, and it can certainly help provide a basis for the spouses to "live happily ever after". But since marriage can equally well be founded on much more practical considerations, why is romantic love such importance in the modern world? The reason seems to be that it has the following basic functions in maintaining the institution of the nuclear family (Goode, 1959): Transfer of Loyalties Romantic love helps the young partners to loosen their family of orientation, a step that is essential if they are to establish an independent nuclear family. Their total absorption in one another facilitates a transfer of commitment from existing family and kin to a new family of procreation. Emotional Support Romantic love provides the couple with emotional support in the difficulties that they face in establishing a new life on their own. This love would not be so necessary in an extended family, where the relatives are able to confront problems cooperatively. Incentive to Marriage Romantic love serves as bait to lure people into marriage. In the modern world, people have considerable choice over whether they will get married or not. A contract to form a lifelong commitment to another person is not necessarily a very tempting proposition, however, to some, the prospect may look more like a noose than like a bed of roses. Without feelings of romantic love, many people might have no incentive to marry. Reference
Goode, William 1.1959. "The theoretical importance of love. "American Sociological Review, 24, pp 38-47".
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Notice that the subheadings make it clear that there are three reasons for the importance of romantic love.
► Words Printed in Italics or Boldface: Words printed in italics or boldface may name the details in a passage. Use the words printed in boldface to locate the major details in the following passage.
Communication Distances
Hall suggests that there are four distinct zones of private space. The first inintimate distance (up to 18 inches), which is reserved for intimate personal contacts. The second is personal distance (18 inches to 4 feet), which is reserved for friends and acquaintances; there is some intimacy within this zone but there are definite limits. The third is social distance (4 feet to 12 feet), which is maintained in relatively format situations, such as interviews. The fourth is public distance, (12 feet and beyond), which is maintained by people wishing to distinguish themselves from the general public; particularly speakers addressing audiences. Invasion of intimate or personal space always excites some reaction on the part of the person whose space is being invaded. ReferenceEdward T. Hall, The Hidden Dimension (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1969, pp 116-125)
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Notice that the four types of communication distances are printed in boldface.
► Numbers: Arabic numerals, such as 1, 2 and 3, or number words, such as first, second, and third, may indicate details. A combination of numerals and italics is used to indicate details in the following passage.
Asking for Criticism Although asking for constructive criticism is the most direct way of finding out whether our behavior is effective, we are often reluctant to do so because we feel threatened by criticism. Instead, we rely entirely on others' nonverbal cues. Yet even when we interpret nonverbal cues accurately, they fall to help us understand why our behavior missed the mark. Nor will such cues help us decide what changes are needed in order for us to improve. By employing the verbal skill of asking for criticism, we accomplish these two objectives. The following guidelines can help you ask for constructive criticism. 1. Ask for criticism so that you will avoid surprises. Taking the initiativein asking for criticism prepares you psychologically to deal with the criticism. 2. Think of criticism as being in your best interest. No one likes to be criticized, but through valid criticism we often learn and grow. When you receive a negative appraisal - even when you expected a positive one - try to look on it not as critical of you personally but as a statement that reveals something about your behavior that you did not know. Whether you will do anything about the criticism is up to you, but you cannot make such a decision if you do not know that the behavior exists or how it affects others.
3. Specify the kind of criticism you are seeking. Rather than asking very general questions about ideas, feelings, or behavior, ask specific questions. If you say, "Colleen, is there anything you don't like about my ideas?" Colleen is likely to consider this a loaded question. But if you say, "Colleen, do you think I've given enough emphasis to the marketing possibilities?" you will encourage Colleen to speak openly to the specific issue. 4. Ask for criticism only when you really want an honest response. If you ask a friend "How do you like this coat?" but actually want the friend to agree that the coat is attractive on you, you are not being honest. Once others realize that when you request an appraisal you are actually fishing for a compliment, valuable appraisals will not be forthcoming. 5. Try to avoid contradiction between your verbal and nonverbal cues. If you say, "How do you like my paper?" but your tone of voice indicates that you do not really want to know, the other person may be reluctant to be honest with you. 6. Give reinforcement to those who take your requests for criticism as honest requests. Suppose you ask your colleagues how they like your ideas for the ad campaign, and you get the response "The ideas seem a little understated." If you then get annoyed and say, "Well, if you can do any better, you can take over." your colleagues will learn not to give you criticism even when you ask for it. Instead, reward people for their constructive criticism. Perhaps you could say, "Thanks for the opinion - I'd like to hear what led you to that conclusion." In this way, you encourage honest appraisal. 7. Be sure you understand the criticism. Before you react to what you've heard. Paraphrase your understanding to make sure it is what the person meant. Asking for criticism does not require that you always act on every comment. You may decide against making a change in what you've said or done for other good reasons. But asking for criticism does enable you to make a conscious, rational choice about whether or not you will change your behavior.
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Numbers such as first and second are used to help you locate the details in the following passage. Underline the numbers in the passage to emphasize how many characteristics of professions are stated.
Professions
Professions are distinguished from other occupations by several characteristics. First, the skill of professionals is based on systematic,theoretical knowledge, not merely on training in particular techniques. Second, professionals have considerable autonomy over their work. Their clients are presumed to be incompetent to make judgments about the problems with which the profession is concerned, you can give instructions to your hairdresser or tailor but cannot advise a doctor or lawyer on matters of medicine or law. Third, professionals form associations that regulate their profession's internal affairs and represent its interests to outside bodies. Fourth, admission to a profession is carefully controlled by the existing members. Anyone can claim to be a salesperson or a carpenter, but someone who claims to be a surgeon or a professor without having the necessary credentials is an impostor. Becoming a professional involves taking an examination, receiving a license, and acquiring a title, and this process is usually regulated by the professional association concerned. Firth, professions have a code of ethics that all their members are expected toadhere to.
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You should have underlined the words first, third, fourth, and fifth.
► Bullets: Bullets are dots or squares that are used to draw attention to items in a list. Bullets indicate the details in the following passage.
Conflict Resolution Although there are many theories on and approaches to conflict resolution, there are some basic strategies that are generally useful in successfully negotiating with a partner. • Clarity the issue. Take responsibility for thinking through your feelings and discovering what is really bothering you. Agree that one partner will speak first and have the chance to speak fully while the other listens. Then reverse the roles. Try to understand the other's position fully by repeating what you've heard and asking questions to clarify or elicit more information. Agree to talk only about the topic at hand and not get distracted by other issues. Sum up what your partner has said. • Find out what each person wants. Ask your partner to express his or her desires. Don't assume you know what your partner wants and speak for him or her. Clarify and summarize. • Identify various alternatives for getting each person what he or she wants. Practice brainstorming to generate a variety of options. • Decide how to negotiate. Work out some agreements or plans for change, such as agreeing that if one partner will do one task, the other will do another task or that a partner will do a task in exchange for being able to do something else he or she wants. • Solidify the agreements. Go over the plan verbally and write it down if necessary to ensure that you both understand and agree to it. • Review and renegotiate. Decide on a time frame for trying out the new plan and set a time to discuss how it's working. Make adjustments as needed. To resolve conflicts, partners have to feel safe in voicing disagreements. They have to trust that the decision won't get out of control that they won't be abandoned by the other, and that the partner won't take advantage of their vulnerability. Partners should follow some basic ground rules when they argue, such as avoiding ultimatums, resisting the urge to give the silent treatment, refusing to "hit below the belt" and not using sex to smooth over disagreements.
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Notice that bullets give prominent emphasis to six strategies for negotiating the resolution to a conflict with a partner.
► Introductory Statements: Introductory statements often give information about details. An introduction may state the number of details in a passage or it may name the details. It is very common for textbook passages to begin with specific information about the details in them.
B. MAKING NOTES FOR BOOKS
The first way to organize information in a textbook is to mark it using methods that are explained information in chapter 10. The second way is to make notes on the information.
Making notes will help you learn in three ways. First, to make notes, you must think about what you read and restate it in your own words. In many instances, you will learn information as you process it in this way. Second, because notes are summaries, you will have much less to learn when you study from notes than you study directly from textbooks. Third, when you make notes, you don't need to learn information exactly as it is presented in a book - you can rearrange it in formats that make it easier for you to learn.
How to make notes for books Use the underlining and other marks you make in your textbook to guide you in making notes on a passage.
• Decide what format you will use for notes (see Figure 11.1).
• Begin the notes with a title that accurately describes the information you want to learn.
• Make major details stand out in notes.
• Include some minor details.
• Include examples; they help in understanding and learning information. |
6.4. NOTES ON CARDS
Most students make notes on notebook paper, but some very successful students prefer to study from notes written on index card. Figure 6.3 below illustrates how to make notes on 3-by-5-inch index cards.
How to Make Notes on Index Cards
• Write a descriptive title on the blank side of a card.
• Write details on the back of the card upside down in relation to the title on the front.
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When you make notes in this way, the information on the backs of the cards is in the proper position for reading when you turn the cards over.
Figure 6.3: Notes on an Index Card
6.5. MAJOR AND MINOR DETAILS
American values
Positive values
1. The word ethic - we believe that work is good and necessary and that it will lead to wealth.
2. Pragmatism - we try to find solutions to problems
3. Thrift and delayed gratification - we believe it is better to save for tomorrow than to spend today.
4. Activism - we work hard to do thing better and to make our lives better.
Negative values
1. Wastefulness - we spend money on thing we don't need, and we waste our natural resources.
2. Indifference to social needs - we believe the strong are the ones who should survive, and we don't look after the basic needs of our people. |
When you make textbook notes, first consider whether you should prepare them so that major and minor details stand out. The notes above have the following characteristics.
• The title describes the content of the notes, and it is written in the center of the page.
• A line is left blank before each major detail.
• Minor details are indented and listed neatly under major details.
6.6. PARAGRAPH SUMMARIES
Reasons for immigration to America Economic: People in the Oil World had difficulty finding employment, and they had little opportunity to acquire land. Many of them didn't have adequate food,
clothing, housing, or health care. They believed they would find in America these things that they didn't have in the Old World. Social Equality: Europeans believed they would find greater equality in America. They knew that higher earnings made it possible for poor Americans to dress, eat, and acquire property in ways that were not possible for poor people in the Old World. America Persuasiveness: America business used advertising to encourage immigration because they wanted to make money by selling passages on ships and by selling land in America.
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When you cannot organize information in notes that emphasize major and minor details, it may be appropriate to make notes in paragraph summaries. The paragraph summary notes above have the following characteristics:
• The title describes the content of the notes and it is written in the center of the page.
• A line is left blank before each paragraph.
• Each paragraph is indented.
• Each paragraph begins with an underlined title, which is the topic of the paragraph.
6.7. DEFINITIONS OF TERMINOLOGY
On many college tests, 70 percent or more of questions directly or indirectly test knowledge of terminology; therefore, it is extremely important for you to learn the terminology that is defined in your textbooks. The definition of terminology notes above have the following characteristics:
• Terms are written on the left side of the page.
• Definitions and examples are written on the right side of the page.
• Blank space is left before each new term.
This note-taking format facilitates learning terminology.
6.8. CLASSIFICATION CHARTS
Classification charts are useful for organizing information that explains how two or more persons, places, or things are alike or different in two or more ways. The chart above summarizes Sigmund Freud's theory about the psychosexual stages of human development, which is explained in many psychology textbooks. The information is summarized under headings that explain the two ways in which the stages differ from one another: "Age" and "Characteristics". The notes also emphasize the sequence the stages occur.
When you have difficulty making good notes, ask this question: "Does this information explain how two or more persons, places, or things are alike or different in two or more ways?" If the answer to this question is yes, make notes in a classification chart.
6.9. TIME LINES
Major Inventions (1875 - 1895)
A time line is useful when you want to learn the chronological sequence of event. To prepare a time line, draw a line, and mark it off in equal time intervals. In the example above, a line is marked off in five - year intervals; however, in other time lines the intervals may represent one week, one month, one year, one hundred years, or any other period. The major advantage of time lines is that they make it easy to visualize the passage of time between events.
After you have marked off the intervals on a time line, write events in the places where they belong. In the example above, "cash register" is written on the line before 1880 because it was invented in 1879 and "motorcycle" is written next to 1885 because it was invented in 1885.
6.10. MAPS
Elements of a Computer
Maps used in traveling show the relations between places; maps used for notes show the relations between ideas, information, and concepts. In maps, information enclosed within squares, circles, or other forms is connected by lines to information enclosed within other forms to indicate how the information is interrelated.
In the map above, description of the elements of a computer are enclosed within rectangles, which are connected by arrows to show how the elements of a computer are interrelated. For example, one arrow between “Input” and “Control” indicates that data flow from input to control, but not from control to input. The two arrows between “Memory” and “Control” indicate that data flow back and forth between memory and control.
EXERCISES
Exercise 6.1: Mark the following passage
PLANTS Plants grow in almost every part of the world. We see such plants as flowers, grass and trees nearly everyday. Plants grow high on mountaintops, far out in the oceans, and in many desert and Polar regions. Without plants, there could be no life on earth. Man could not live without air or food, and so he could not live without plants. The food we eat also comes from plants and from animals that eat plants. We build houses and make many useful products from lumber cut from trees. Much of our clothing is made from the fibers of the cotton plant. Scientists believe there are more than 350.000 species of plants, but no one knows for sure. Some of the smallest plants, called diatoms, can be seen only with a microscope. A drop of water may hold as many as 500 diatoms. The largest living things are the giant sequoia trees of California. Some of them stand more than 290 feet high and measure over 30 feet wide. Scientists divide all living things into two main groups-plants and animals. It is usually easily to tell the two apart. Almost all kinds of plants stay in one place, but nearly all species of animals move about under their own power. Most plants make their own food. The basic units of all life, called cells, are also different in plants and animals. Most plant cells have thick walls that contain a material called cellulose. Animal cells do not have this material. |
Exercise 6.2: Mark the following passage
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION Environmental pollution is a term that refers to all ways by which man pollutes his surroundings. Man dirties the air with gases and smoke, poisons the water with chemicals and other substances, and damages the soil with too many fertilizers and pesticides. Man also pollutes his surroundings in various other ways. For example, people ruin natural beauty by scattering junk and litter on the land and in the water. They operate machines and motor vehicles that fill the air with disturbing noise. Environmental pollution is one of the most serious problems facing mankind today. Air, water and soil are necessary to the survival of all living things. Badly polluted air can cause illness, and even death. Polluted water kills fish and other marine life. Pollution of soil reduces the amount of land that is available for growing food. Environmental pollution also brings ugliness to man's naturally beautiful world. |
Exercise 6.3: Mark the following passage
DROUGHT Drought is a condition that results when the average rainfall for a fertile area drops far below the normal amount for a long period of time. In areas that are not irrigated, the lack of rain causes farm crops to wither and die. Higher than normal temperatures usually accompany periods of droughts. They add to the crop damage. Forest fires start easily during droughts. The soil of a drought area becomes dry and crumbles. Often the rich topsoil is blown away by the hot, dry winds. Streams, ponds, and wells often dry up during a drought, and animals suffer and may even die because of the lack of water. |
Exercise 6.4: Mark the following passage
DRUGS All drugs can affect the body in both helpful and harmful ways. For example, a particular drug may produce a stronger heartbeat, relief from a pain, or some other desired effects-especially if the dose is too large. Such effects might include fever, high pressure, or constipation. Most drugs produce changes throughout the body because the drugs circulate through the blood stream. As a result, most drugs used to affect one part of the body also affect the other parts. For example, physicians sometimes prescribe morphine to relieve pain. Morphine depresses the attractive of cells in the brain and thus reduces the sensation of pain. But morphine also alters the function of cells elsewhere in the body. It may decrease the rate of breathing, produce constipation, and create other undesired effects. |
Exercise 6.5: "Plants"
Choose a suitable format and make notes on the information you have marked in exercise 6.1.
Exercise 6.6: "Environmental pollution"
Choose a suitable format and make notes on the information you have marked in exercise 6.2.
Exercise 6.7: "Drought"
Choose a suitable format and make notes on the information you have marked in exercise 6.3.
Exercise 6.8: "Drugs"
Choose a suitable format and make notes on the information you have marked in exercise 6.4.
